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Diana Laurillard (forthcoming).
Interactive multimedia makes an impressive resource for the scholar-researcher, but learners unfamiliar with the subject-matter may not always work so effectively with such material. Interactive resources of this kind are essentially non-narrative in form. Narrative forms have always been fundamental in providing the structure that gives meaning to a message, which is especially important in the context of education. The traditional educational media, lectures and books, are narrative in form, enabling the learner to follow the structure and make sense of the message. Interactive multimedia materials typically have no narrative, and learners are expected to use them as they would an encyclopedia, exploring and discovering for themselves, as they would for a class project. The learners themselves have to create the narrative if they are to achieve a meaningful outcome.
This presentation will describe work carried out within the MENO (Multimedia, Education and Narrative Organisation) project, which has investigated the role that narrative plays in a non-narrative medium. Our findings show that the commercially-produced multimedia CDs which are predominant in the school curriculum, lack the kind of task structure and interface dynamic that enable pupils to retain control of their own narrative. The learning experience
becomes meaningful only when the multimedia material is organised by the pupils in the light of their personal narrative, whether negotiated with the teacher or among themselves. This is only possible when the progression of their narrative can be accommodated by the interface design. When these conditions are met, interactive multimedia can act as a powerful motivator for an active analytical approach to educational material.
The presentation will describe the design features that 'afford' behaviours that generate learning: which design features encourage students to practise the role of the scholar? which encourage them to explore? which encourage them to reflect on their analysis of the data they find? and how can teachers enhance these materials to make them more effective? Interactive multimedia materials can enhance learning, but the learning experiences they offer must be well understood by both designers and teachers if they are to succeed in doing so.
Laurillard et al (1994) Paper
The main aims of the Evaluation Study were to investigate the contribution of Interactive Video (IV) and associated technologies to the school curriculum and to students' learning in order to develop an informed educational perspective on new interactive technologies and to recommend
strategies for successful implementation of new technologies.
The project was conducted in two phases, a pilot phase (Sept 1992 - July 1993) involving 35 schools and an extension phase, from September 1993 to March 1994, in which 208 schools were involved.
Findings deal with operational characteristics of the systems; effects of differential resource provision; methods of implementation; the impact on teaching and learning; access to the technology; customisation of the materials to local needs; benefits and disadvantages of the interactive technologies; and comparative characteristics of the IV/CD media.
Luckin, R., L. Plowman, D. Laurillard, M. Stratfold, J. Taylor
In this paper we describe an innovative approach to the design of software support for multimedia interactive learning environments (MILEs) which enables users to construct personal narratives. We present a framework for the construction of narrative which indicates some of the underlying constituent processes and their potential scaffolds and we discuss the use of Galapagos, a CD-ROM which teaches students about Darwin's theory of evolution. This was developed to test our hypotheses about how narrative in MILEs can provide guidance and scaffolding of the task and the learners. Students using Galapagos are set a task which requires them to collaborate in the construction of an answer in the notepad facility provided by the CD-ROM; these notepads offer one representation of the emerging narratives being constructed by each group. We explore the role of narrative in learner support and highlight particular design features which we identified as effective in engaging learners, supporting meaning-making processes and eliciting effortful activity.
Luckin, R., J. Taylor, L. Plowman, D. Laurillard, M. Stratfold
Narrative has long been a feature of books, films and television; we use it to shape our experience and to help us remember. Whilst multimedia combines these familiar linear media it also deconstructs the narrative which is normally present. As a result, the skills learnt with traditional media are not easily transferred to multimedia and learners need support in their construction of a personal narrative.
In this paper we describe the Galapagos CD-ROM which we have designed to enable us to explore the role of narrative in the design of Multimedia Interactive Learning Environments (MILEs). Specific design features have been systematically manipulated in the production of three versions of Galapagos: linear, which defines the narrative in such a way that students are led through each sub-task in sequence, resource-based which is like an encyclopaedia in style, offering no guidance through the CD-ROM, and guided discovery which offers guidance in breaking down the task and helps students to structure it. We have used Galapagos with groups of students in school and in college. Through the development and evaluation of Galapagos we have been able to explore the ways in which design features elicit and foster different kinds of learner behaviour, how these cue users into various styles of interaction with the CD-ROM, and how students make sense of the material.
Luckin, R. & L. Plowman (1998).
Learning involves complex communicative and meaning-making competences. We describe using video, as one of several sources of data, to capture some of the complexities of the learning experience when students used three different versions of a CD-ROM designed to teach the principles of natural selection. Each version had similar content and stated the task in the same format (to explain the variation in the wildlife on the
Galapagos Islands and write the answer in the notepad) but had a different structure. We used the richness of the video recordings to investigate how students' learning strategies interacted with the technology. We explored the ways in which design features elicit and foster different kinds of learner behaviour, how these cue users into various styles of interaction with the CD-ROM, and how students make sense of the material. In this context, the constituents of learning included searching and locating, relating the content to other issues, hypothesising, use of recall, keeping track of their route and content, and defining the task and the information required to complete the task. We describe what we have learnt about their learning strategies, including opportunistic 'cheating' and the importance of the context of delivery.
Every session had two video recorded sources: one of the group of students, the other of the screen image. We supplemented this with other sources of data, including post-activity descriptions of the lesson and teacher assessment of their work. Our analyses therefore encompass the structure of the content, design of the interface and their interrelationships with learning.
Plowman, L. (1998) Paper
The first part of this paper is a case study of recently undertaken research in which students using a CD-ROM were observed using video as a principle source of data. Video is particularly suitable for fairly detailed analyses of language and interactions and the case study is used as a starting point for discussing broader issues of data collection and analysis. The second part is more general and consists mainly of 'handy hints' to take into account when using video as a source of information.
Plowman, L. (1998) Paper
I use classroom observation of real tasks to identify some of the problems which lead to cognitive overload, by which I mean having too much to think about to be able to undertake a task effectively. This research reveals some of the ways in which hypermedia structures can lead to children losing
track, not only of the structure, but also of their thinking. Even for more experienced users, if effort is involved in interacting with the material, mental resources available for comprehension and achievement of the learning goal are reduced.
Plowman, L. (1996) Paper
Brief definitions of narrative and some of the main narrative theories are compared to current understandings of interactivity. I cite examples in traditional media, such as novels and films, of texts which explicitly attempt interaction with the reader and argue that multilinear, rather than nonlinear, is a more appropriate way to conceptualise narrative in interactive media.
Plowman, L.(1996) Paper
This paper summarises findings from a large-scale evaluation study of interactive media in the classroom in terms of supporting the users (both teachers and learners) and exploiting the medium. Design principles need to take account of context and be drawn from observations of such materials in use and, based on this contextual observation, a number of design guidelines are offered. There follows a brief discussion based on findings which suggest that narrative may have a key role in the design of educational interactive media.
Plowman, L. (1996) Paper
This paper summarises findings from a large-scale evaluation study of interactive media in the classroom in terms of supporting the users (both teachers and learners) and exploiting the medium. Design principles need to take account of context and be drawn from observations of such materials in use and, based on this contextual observation, a number of design guidelines are offered. There follows a brief discussion based on findings which suggest that narrative may have a key role in the design of educational interactive media.
Plowman, L. (1996) Paper
The paper summarises findings from previous studies of interactive media in the classroom which suggest that the design of most software leads to a fragmented experience which impedes comprehension. The role of narrative in providing structure and coherence is discussed in the context of educational interactive media and initial findings from current research into the role of narrative are reported.
Plowman, L. (1994) Paper
There are parallels between the early stages of development of interactive multimedia programs and the 'Primitive Mode of Representation' in early film. Findings from fieldwork analyzing children's use of 4 interactive multimedia programs are compared with a description of some features of early film and are used as the basis of a consideration of some of the problems faced by an audience encountering a nascent medium. Some of the methods which were adopted to facilitate the audience's understanding of film - the use of intertitles and a narrator - are considered, and their suitability for adaptation to interface design for multimedia programs is discussed.
